Somalia

The coast was known to the ancient Egyptians as part of the Land of Punt, a source of frankincense, myrrh, and gold, and it later anchored a chain of Islamic trading sultanates — Mogadishu, Ajuran, the Adal state around Zeila — linked to the Indian Ocean world. In the late nineteenth century the Somali lands were divided among Britain (the northwest), Italy (the south and east), France (Djibouti), and Ethiopia (the Ogaden). Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan led a two-decade armed resistance to colonial rule until 1920.

British Somaliland and Italian Somalia became independent and united as the Somali Republic in 1960. In 1969 Siad Barre seized power in a coup and ruled for 22 years, aligning first with the Soviet Union and then the West, and fighting a disastrous war with Ethiopia over the Ogaden in 1977–78. Clan-based opposition movements brought the state down in 1991.

What followed was decades of collapse: rival warlords, a US–UN intervention in 1992–95 that ended after the 1993 "Black Hawk Down" battle in Mogadishu, the rise and fall of the Islamic Courts Union in 2006, an Ethiopian invasion, and the emergence of al-Shabaab. An African Union force has propped up a series of transitional and federal governments since 2007, clawing back territory but unable to end the insurgency, and famine in 2011 killed a quarter of a million people. The northwest declared itself the independent Republic of Somaliland in 1991; it is not internationally recognised but has held elections and remained comparatively stable.

Somalia is one of Africa's most homogeneous countries in ethnicity, language, and religion: overwhelmingly ethnic Somali, Sunni Muslim, and Somali-speaking. Yet it is deeply divided by clan (qabiil), the genealogical system that structures identity, marriage, dispute settlement, and politics, and whose rivalries drove the civil war.

Somalis are sometimes called a nation of poets. Oral poetry — recited, memorised, and fiercely judged — is the prestige art form, historically used for news, argument, courtship, and feud. Camel husbandry is central to the pastoral heritage, with camels a measure of wealth and a frequent subject of verse.

Society is conservative and religiously observant, with modest dress, gender separation in many settings, and Ramadan widely kept. Hospitality to guests is a strong obligation. The chewing of khat (qat), a mild stimulant leaf imported daily from Ethiopia and Kenya, is a widespread afternoon habit for men.

Around 18 million people are Somali citizens, with a large pastoral population still moving herds of camels, goats, and cattle in search of pasture, and others farming between the Shabelle and Jubba rivers or fishing the coast. Recurrent drought and conflict have displaced millions, and camps of the internally displaced ring the cities.

Where the state is weak, private enterprise and the diaspora fill gaps: money transfer (hawala) firms, telecoms, and mobile money function well, remittances from relatives abroad sustain many households, and Mogadishu has seen a construction and solar-power boom funded partly by returnees. Public services — schooling, health, policing — are patchy and often provided by clan, religious, or aid organisations.

Life in Somaliland is calmer, with functioning markets, universities, and local government, though poverty and unemployment are high and the lack of recognition limits investment and travel.

Somali food reflects centuries of Indian Ocean trade and the Italian presence in the south. The staple bread is canjeero (also called laxoox), a soft fermented flatbread eaten at breakfast with sesame oil and sugar or with stew. The classic main course is bariis iskukaris, spiced rice with goat, camel, or chicken, seasoned with a mix related to garam masala and often served with banana on the side.

Meat is central — grilled or stewed goat and camel, suqaar (diced sautéed meat), and offal dishes — alongside hilib ari and pasta (baasto), a direct Italian legacy usually served with a rich meat sauce. Sambuusa (samosas) are the Ramadan snack. Camel milk is prized, both fresh and soured.

Meals end with sweet xalwo, a dense confection of sugar, ghee, and spices, and shaah, black tea boiled with cardamom, cinnamon, and cloves. No alcohol is sold or consumed.

Realistic access is limited to Somaliland, where the standout is Laas Geel, a complex of rock shelters near Hargeisa whose painted cattle and human figures, around 5,000 years old, are among the best preserved in Africa. Berbera has long beaches, Ottoman and colonial-era buildings, and warm Gulf of Aden diving, and the Daallo escarpment and the forested Cal Madow mountains rise steeply behind the coast.

Elsewhere the country holds sights that are currently out of reach to ordinary visitors: the ruined port of Zeila, the old stone town of Mogadishu with the thirteenth-century Arba'a Rukun mosque and the Italian-era cathedral shell, the Lido and Jazeera beaches of the capital, and the long, empty Indian Ocean coast running south past Kismayo.

The Somali coastline — the longest of any mainland African country — and the arid interior support wildlife including the endangered Speke's gazelle, the Somali wild ass, and large seabird colonies on offshore islands, though decades of conflict have left little in the way of protected areas or infrastructure to see them.